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HerbMed® - an interactive, electronic herbal
database – which provides hyperlinked access
to the scientific data underlying the use of herbs
for health. It is an evidence-based information
resource for professionals, researchers, and general
public.
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Common Name :
Cayenne, Red Pepper
Latin Name :
Capsicum frutescens
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| EVIDENCE FOR EFFICACY (HUMAN DATA) |
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Clinical Trials |
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Previous research has shown capsaicin increase the pain threshold. A double-blind, randomised parallel study compared capsicum plaster with a placebo for patients with non-specific back pain. The pain tolerance ratings by investigators and patients were superior to the placebo. Keitel 2001 |
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The effects of red pepper and caffeine ingestion on energy and macronutrient balances were examined in eight Caucasian male subjects. Red pepper and caffeine consumption significantly reduced the cumulative ad libitum energy intake and increased energy expenditure. Yoshioka 2001 |
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A prospective crossover study in healthy H. pylori-infected adults was performed to investigate whether garlic or capsaicin-containing peppers would actually inhibit H. pylori in vivo. The study did not support a role for either garlic or jalapenos in the treatment of H. pylori infection. Graham 1999 |
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Ingestion of red pepper decreases appetite and subsequent protein and fat intakes in Japanese females and energy intake in Caucasian males. Moreover, this effect might be related to an increase in sympathetic nervous system activity in Caucasian males. Yoshioka 1999 |
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This study was based on skin test using own extracts of different solanaceous plants. The results showed paprika's antigenic determinant was not present in the other solanaceous plants tested.
Vega de la Osada 1998 |
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The effects of dietary hot red pepper on energy metabolism at rest and during exercise were examined in long distance male runners 18-23 yr of age, with results suggesting that hot red pepper ingestion stimulates carbohydrate oxidation at rest and during exercise.
Lim 1997 |
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In a study of 18 volunteers with normal index endoscopies, each took 20 g chili orally with water or just water. Each ingested 600 mg aspirin a half an hour later. The median gastric injury score for chili was 1.5 compared to 4 in the control group demonstrating a gastroprotective effect.
Yeoh 1995 |
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Experimental results suggest than an increase in the energy expenditure after the meal containing red pepper appeared only immediately after the meal ingestion and is considered to be caused by beta-adrenergic stimulation.
Yoshioka 1995 |
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Gastrointestinal transit of a standard test meal was measured on two separate days. On one of these occasions, 20 g of chilli powder was added to the meal. The rate of gastric emptying was slower and whole gut transit was faster after the meal containing chilli, compared with the other meal. Horowitz 1992 |
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Observational Studies/Case Reports |
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This study describes clinical toxicity caused by oleoresin capsicum (OC) spray during law-enforcement action, including transient burning sensation, erythema, and localized irritation. Practitioners assessing exposure should consider the potential for pulmonary and ocular toxicity.
Watson 1996 |
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The present study found the odds ratio of having peptic ulcer disease, adjusted for age, sex, analgesic use, and smoking by multiple logistic regression, was 0.47 (95% confidence intervals) for subjects who used more chili (frequency and amount) compared to those who used less chili. Kang 1995 |
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Chronic occupational exposure to chili peppers is associated with complaints of cough but the cough response to capsaicin inhalation may be modified by the effects of multiple, potentially interactive factors.
Blanc 1991 |
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This report outlines a case of plasma cell gingivitis, a rare benign condition of the gingiva. Marked by a dense infiltrate of normal plasma cells separated into aggregates by strands of collagen. It is a hypersensitivity reaction to some antigen, possibly the use of red peppers in cooking.
Serio 1991 |
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Adverse Effects & Toxicity |
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This report highlights the importance of using grade 1 chilli pods to minimize aflatoxin contamination.
Reddy 2001 |
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This study is a descriptive retrospective review of a physician-maintained log of patients presenting to a jail ward emergency area over a 3-year period. Of 100 cases of pepper spray exposure identified, seven patients had sustained corneal abrasions. Brown 2000 |
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A case-control study was conducted to evaluate the dietary risk factors for stomach cancer. Risk was high for those consuming spicy food, high consumption of chilli and consumption of high-temperature food. Mathew 2000 |
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People suffering from asthma may be hypersensitive to pepper spray. One study indicated that asthmatics do not develop additional bronchoconstriction following inhalation of capsaicin, but the experimental data were not clear enough to draw sound conclusions.
Busker 1998 |
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Allergens in spices from the botanic families Apiaceae, Piperaceae, and Solanaceae were characterized with IgE-immunoblotting and IgE-inhibition experiments. Allergy to spices was found to be a consequence of pollen allergy on the basis of immunologic cross-reactivity.
Ebner 1998 |
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To analyze bell pepper extracts for allergen composition, sera was collected from 11 patients with food allergy to bell peppers. The appearance of profilin in all and Bet v 1 in 50% of the tested horticultural strains indicates that bell peppers have to be considered potentially dangerous. Jensen-Jarolim 1998 |
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In a retrospective study of case histories of a lead intoxication epidemic caused by ingestion of contaminated ground paprika, fifty-three patients had symptoms and signs of lead poisoning. The most common clinical signs were colic and/or anemia. Kakosy 1996 |
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Two cases are describe of in-custody death, both associated temporally with the use of pepper spray, to illustrate salient investigative considerations to help reveal the role of oleoresin capsicum spray as an unrelated or contributory, or causative factor. Steffee 1995 |
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"Hunan hand" is a contact dermatitis resulting from the direct handling of chili peppers containing capsaicin. A case of a patient with capsaicin-induced dermatitis is presented and the pathophysiology, therapy, and current uses of capsaicin is discussed.
Williams 1995 |
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A sixty-six-year-old white man presented with a five-day history of painful erythematous papules, plaques, pustules, and hemorrhagic bullae on both hands. His history was remarkable for having prepared and pickled fifteen quarts of home-grown jalapeno peppers several days. Greer 1993 |
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Contemporary Standardized Methods |
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Fruits of Capsicum annuum ripen as a group, enabling a single harvesting and a uniform carotenoid content high enough for paprika production. The ripeness state of the harvested fruits and the severity of the processing steps are indicated by the ratio of red to yellow and/or red to total pigments. Minguez-Mosquera 2000 |
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Carotenoid pigments in commercial oleoresins, qualitatively uniform in pigment composition, were thermodegraded, with results indicating that the oily medium modulates the degradation reaction differently for the red and yellow fractions, so that each oleoresin shows a different stability. Perez-Galvez 2000 |
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Carotenoid pigment fractions of four paprika oleoresins were studied. At temperatures below 60 degrees C, the rate of destruction of the yellow pigment fraction was higher than that of the red pigments. Above 60 degrees C, the order of lability of the two fractions was inverted. Jaren-Galan 1999 |
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Red pepper seeds were roasted with constant stirring for 6, 9, 10, and 12 min at 210 degrees C, and oils were extracted from the roasted red pepper seeds using an expeller. The oxidative stabilities of oils increased greatly as the roasting time increased.
Jung 1999 |
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It was found that the dynamics of Capsicum annuum fruit ripening was influenced by weather conditions of the production season with regard to carotenoids and bioantioxidants. During storage of ground paprika, color stability was improved by grinding the seeds with the pericarp.
Markus 1999 |
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Chicken hot-drumettes containing 2% cayenne pepper prepared using three different cooking methods resulted in diferences in "hotness" evaluation. The addition of antioxidants during preparation retarded the loss of hotness of the products during refrigerated storage.
Chang 1998 |
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Dried guajillo peppers were extracted with four different solvents: ethanol, acetone, ethyl acetate and hexane to obtaining oleoresins which were further fractionated. Results showed that as the polarity of the solvent increased the amount of pigments extracted also increased. Amaya Guerra 1997 |
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No aflatoxins were detected in sundried, matured red C. frutescens. Dominant fungi isolated from C. annum and C. frutescens were Rhizopus oryzaze, Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, Geotrichum candidum and Saccharomyces spp.. Adegoke 1996 |
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Folk Methods |
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Using a filter disk assay, aqueous extracts from a number of fresh Capsicum varieties were tested for their antimicrobial effects on fifteen bacterial and one yeast species. They were found to exhibit varying degrees of inhibition against several bacteria.
Cichewicz 1996 |
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Contemporary Formulas |
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Oleoresin capsicum (OC), extracts containing a multitude of natural compounds at irregular concentrations was confirmed by organic and inorganic analyses performed on OC sprays produced by two manufacturers licensed for distribution within the state of California. Haas 1997 |
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Pharmacodynamics |
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Capsanthin and related carotenoids isolated from the fruits of red paprika Capsicum annuum L. showed potent in vitro anti-tumor-promoting activity with inhibitory effects on Epstein-Barr virus early antigen (EBV-EA) activation induced by a tumor promoter. Maoka 2001 |
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The membrane effects of capsaicinoids are responsible for their non-neuronal antibacterial and antiplatelet actions as measured by fluorescence polarization of liposomes prepared with different phospholipids and cholesterol. Tsuchiya 2001 |
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Salmonella typhimurium in the plate-incorporation test was used to measure antimutagenicity of carotenoids extracted from 5 types of Capsicum spp. Results suggest since beta-carotene inhibited only 50% mutagenicity, each extract has more than one antimutagenic compound with synergistic effects.
Gonzaez 1998 |
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A review of recent studies, which revealed substantial antigenotoxic and anticarcinogenic effects of capsaicin, suggesting this compound as another important dietary phytochemical with a potential chemopreventive activity. Surh 1998 |
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Various concentrations of chilli extract were tested in 2 stages on the growth of a human buccal mucosa fibroblast cell line. At lower concentrations growth continued unabated and at high concentrations suppression of cell growth was evident in a concentration dependent manner.
van Wyk 1995 |
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At the concentrations found in the chili extract, chlorophyllin and beta-carotene showed an antimutagenic effect against the nitro-aromatic compounds in a test system using derivatives of Salmonella typhimurium and comparing them to the normal strain and to a nitroreductase-deficient mutant.
Espinosa-Aguirre 1993 |
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A review of the beneficial effects associated with long use of Capsicum spp. by ethnic groups and consumption level effects on the gastrointestinal tract, the cardiovascular system, the sensory system, thermoregulation and nutritional uptake. Govindarajan 1991 |
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Animal Studies |
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Oral doses of aqueous Capsicum frutescens (Cf) solution during gestation produces an increase in the thermonociceptive escape response latency of rat offspring. This work shows that different amounts of Cf incorporated into food of gestating rats modify in a dose-dependent manner. Pellicer 2001 |
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Poblano juice decreased somatic mutation and recombination in wing cells of Drosophila melanogaster exposed to methyl urea and sodium nitrite. The experiments suggest that some compounds present in the green pepper may cause this antimutagenic effect by interfering with the nitrosation process. Ramirez-Victoria 2001 |
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Sarcoma arises extremely rarely on foreign bodies in man. Identifying a coating for implants in mice, which would further reduce the risk in man, is the focus of this paper. Paprika and beta-carotene fomented tumour growth. Other substances were inert. Lavelle 2000 |
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The inhibitory activity of oxygenated carotenoid capsanthin and paprika juice rich in capsanthin against colon carcinogenesis was investigated in rats. Results suggested that paprika juice may affect colon carcinogenesis, but that capsanthin alone failed to inhibit colon tumorigenesis. Narisawa 2000 |
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The effects of red chilli were examined in 12-w-old male Wistar rats fed a commercial diet mixed with 2% and 10% (w/w) ground Capsicum frutescens fruits for 8 w. The rats were not adversely affected on feed with 2% Capsicum, while significant effects occured in rats feed with 10% Capsicum. al-Qarawi 1999 |
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Phospholipid hydroperoxides in the plasma, red blood cells and liver of mice were measured after for one weeks consumption of extracts of turmeric, rosemary, and capsicum pigment. These findings suggest that these spice extracts could act antioxidatively in vivo by food supplementation. Asai 1999 |
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The bioavailabilities of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) and of salicylic acid were studied in male Wistar rats after acute and chronic administration of a Capsicum annuum extract, containing 100 mg of capsaicin per gram. Results show that Capsicum ingestion reduces oral drug bioavailability. Cruz 1999 |
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This study was performed to compare acute respiratory effects of o-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile, oleoresin capsicum and their respective solvents in awake rats, using an integrated system of nose-only exposure and multiple monitoring of breathing. Debarre 1999 |
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An experimental diet, which contained 20% (w/w) lyophilized powder of red bell pepper (Capsicum annuum), was fed to senescence-accelerated mouse (SAM)P8 mice. Mice receiving the experimental diet showed much better acquisition in passive avoidance tasks as compared with a group given a common diet. Suganuma 1999 |
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The topical application of capsaicin (Capsicum genus) did not induce the epidermal ornithine decarboxylase activity, suggesting it lacks tumor-promotional activity. Rather, the compound ameliorated the mouse skin carcinogenesis when given simultaneously with a tumor promoter.
Park 1998 |
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The absorption rate of radiolabelled nutrients (methionine, leucine) was investigated in vivo in Sprague-Dawley rats at the end of a feeding period of 135 days on a semisynthetic diet containing 32% sweet paprika powder. No effect was seen on the intestinal absorption of these compounds.
Barna 1996 |
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Extracts from the fruits of Capsicum frutescens L. were tested for their clastogenicity using the mouse-bone-marrow micronucleus (mouse-MN) assay. Results of the mouse-MN, an in vivo method, indicated that the isolate CF-1 is clastogenic at the maximum tolerated dose of 1.22 mg/kg mouse. Villasenor 1994 |
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The effect of chilli consumption was studied in relation to: (i) gastrointestinal crypt cell production rate and nucleic acid content as indices of mucosal proliferation and (ii) azoxymethane-induced intestinal cancer in Sprague-Dawley rats. Kang 1992 |
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The effect of a single intratracheal dose of paprika dust, paprika dust extract, and cellulose dust on the lungs of rats was examined at 1 and 3 months. Treatment with paprika and cellulose dusts resulted in alveobronchiolitis, but extract of paprika dust caused no histopathological changes.
Tatrai 1992 |
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Analytical Chemistry |
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The changes in the carotenoid pigments of the Capsicum annuum var. lycopersiciforme rubrum during maturation have been investigated quantitatively by means of a HPLC technique. In all of the chromatograms, 40 peaks were detected; 34 carotenoids were identified. Deli 2001 |
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Ground Capsicum was extracted with supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO(2)) and subcritical propane. Under mild conditions subcritical propane was superior to SC-CO(2) in the extraction of carotenoids and tocopherols but less efficient in the extraction of capsaicinoids.
Gnayfeed 2001 |
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Investigation of polar extracts from ripe fruits of Capsicum annuum L. var. acuminatum yielded three new glycosides, capsosides A and B, and capsianoside VII. Iorizzi 2001 |
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Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) followed by principal component analysis (PCA) can be successfully used for the identification of chili powders according to the composition of their colour pigments.
Kosa 2001 |
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Eleven apocarotenoids (1-11) including five new compounds,were isolated from the fruits of the red paprika Capsicum annuum L. These apocarotenoids were assumed to be oxidative cleavage products of C(40) carotenoid such as capsanthin in paprika.
Maoka 2001 |
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The differences in structural nature of the carotenoids (lipids differing in degrees of unsaturation and in different proportions 20 and 40%)present in the dehydrated pepper fruit produce a variable rate of oxidation, resulting in nonuniform degradation. Perez-Galvez 2001 |
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LC/MS was used to identify and quantify predominant capsaicinoid analogues in extracts of fresh peppers, oleoresin capsicum, and pepper sprays. The data indicate that commercial pepper products are not standardized for capsaicinoid content even though they are classified by Scoville Heat Units. Reilly 2001 |
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Five major glycolipid classes (acylated steryl glucoside, steryl glucoside, monogalactosyldiacylglycerol, digalactosyldiacylglycerol, and glucocerebroside) from fruit pastes of red bell pepper were separated by silica gel column chromatography. Yamauchi 2001 |
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The method described the use of lipase type VII to cleave in part several red pepper carotenoid esters quickly and under comparatively mild reaction conditions as a replacement of alkaline hydrolysis that allows the resulting product to be used in food industry as "natural" coloring agent. Breithaupt 2000 |
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This paper deals with the kinetics of the formation of those volatiles that indicate a decrease in spice paprika quality due to Maillard reaction, hydrolytic reactions, and oxidative degradation reactions of lipids such as fatty acids and carotenoids. Cremer 2000 |
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Seven different chromatography plates have been tested for their capacity to separate the color pigments of six chili powders of different origin by both adsorption and reversed-phase thin-layer chromatography. It was found that the pigment composition of chili powders showed marked differences. Cserhati 2000 |
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RP-HPLC using water-methanol-acetonitrile gradient elution separated the chili (Capsicum frutescens) pigments in many fractions. It was established that the very different absorption spectra of pigments make the use of DAD necessary Cserhati 2000 |
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The selective extraction of capsaicinoids and carotenoids from chili guajillo "puya" flour was studied. When ethanol was used as solvent, 80% of capsaicinoids and 73% of carotenoids were extracted, representing an interesting alternative for the substitution of hexane in industrial processes. Santamaria 2000 |
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Paprika oleoresin was fractionated by extraction with supercritical carbon dioxide (SCF-CO(2)). Higher extraction volumes, increasing extraction pressures, and similarly, the use of cosolvents such as 1% ethanol or acetone resulted in higher pigment yields. Jaren-Galan 1999 |
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To analyze capsaicinoids (CAPS) in placentas of Capsicum fruits a supercritical fluid extraction and supercritical fluid chromatography system was used. The CAPS contents in placentas agreed with extraction-HPLC methods and had the advantages of needing no pretreatment nor use of organic solvents. Sato 1999 |
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To compare the effects of freezing and freeze-drying on the volatile components of Padron-type peppers, preserved samples are analyzed by means of dynamic headspace sampling on an adsorbent followed by microwave desorption into a gas chromatograph equipped with a mass spectrometric detector. Oruna-Concha 1998 |
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Developmental changes in fatty acid hydroperoxide lyase (HPO lyase) and lipoxygenase (LOX) during the maturation of Capsicum annuum fruit were examined by means of activity measurements, immunological detection and analysis of the volatile compounds formed upon homogenization of the fruits. Matsui 1997 |
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This describes a simple, rapid high-performance liquid chromatography method devised to separate and quantify the xanthophylls capsorubin and capasanthin present in red pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) fruits and preparations made from them (paprika and oleoresin). Weissenberg 1997 |
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Several fractions demonstrating trypsin inhibitory activity were isolated from the seeds of the paprika plant (Capsicum annuum). One of the inhibitors, PSI-1.1, was purified to homogeneity and characterised. Antcheva 1996 |
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Pharmacokinetics (ADME) |
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We investigated the presence of different carotenoids in male human subject after the ingestion of paprika juice, and identified capsanthin, capsanthone, cucurbitaxanthin A, 11-cis-capsanthin, lutein and zeaxanthin in the human plasma. Etoh 2000 |
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The pharmacokinetics of dietary capsanthin was measured in four male volunteers to assess the bioavailability of oxygenated carotenoids. The clearance of capsanthin is much faster than that of lycopene, although capsanthin is transported into plasma lipoproteins in larger amounts. Oshima 1997 |
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This study found that a single dose of Capsicum fruit could affect pharmacokinetic parameters of theophylline (k1,0), while a repeated dose affected the metabolic pathway of xanthine oxidase.
Bouraoui 1995 |
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Genetics & Molecular Biology |
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Highly reproducible molecular marker assays, inter simple sequence repeat polymerase chain reaction [ISSR-PCR] and FISSR-PCR (for fluorescent ISSR-PCR) were used for differentiating the four disputed chilli samples. Kumar 2001 |
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By means of differential display, a pool of salicylic acid (SA)-induced mRNAs were identified and subsequently their cDNAs were isolated from a cDNA library prepared from SA-induced leaf tissues of hot pepper. Lee 2001 |
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Seven small wound-inducible proteinase inhibitor proteins were isolated from leaves of Capsicum annuum plants. N-terminal sequences obtained indicated that the pepper leaf proteinase inhibitors (PLPIs) exhibit homology to two GenBank accessions that code for preproteins. Moura 2001 |
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The Tsw gene conferring dominant resistance to the Tospovirus Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) in Capsicum spp. has been tagged with a random amplified polymorphic DNA marker and mapped to the distal portion of chromosome 10. Jahn 2000 |
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A clone for a plastid omega-3 fatty acid desaturase CachFAD was isolated from a leaf cDNA library of Capsicum. Wounding not only enhanced the accumulation of the CachFAD mRNA but also increased the conversion of linoleic acid (18:2) to linolenic acid (18:3) in leaf lipids of hot pepper.
Kwon 2000 |
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The aqueous fraction of Fushimi sweet pepper increased the repair effect of the solvent control against UV-induced cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers in human fibroblast to 150%, but ordinary sweet pepper did not have a statistically significant effect. Nakamura 2000 |
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The zeta-carotene desaturase from Capsicum annuum was expressed in Escherichia coli, purified and characterized biochemically. The enzyme acts as a monomer with lipophilic quinones as cofactors. Breitenbach 1999 |
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A genetic map of Capsicum was created from an interspecific F2 population consisting of two linkage groups. Many markers are tomato probes chosen to cover the tomato genome. Hybridization of all tomato-derived probes suggests that no major losses have occurred during their genetic divergence. Livingstone 1999 |
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A PCR-based approach was used to isolate R-gene analogs with consensus primers corresponding with conserved domains of cloned R-genes. PCR-amplified fragments were sequenced and mapped on a pepper intraspecific map. Pflieger 1999 |
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This paper describes the characterization of two pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) cDNAs, CapTKT1 and CapTKT2, that encode transketolases having distinct and dedicated specificities. Bouvier 1998 |
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We have isolated a cDNA encoding a fruit specific defensin from Capsicum annuum. The 48-amino-acid mature domain named J1 is undetectable at the green stage but accumulates during ripening. During wounding of the green fruit J1 accumulates dramatically and demonstrates antifungal activity. Meyer 1996 |
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Southern blot analysis of Capsicum annuum genomic DNA suggests the presence of a single gene highly similar to a cloned geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase cDNA. The present data suggest that this cloned gene from C. annuum is functional.
Badillo 1995 |
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Shared restriction fragments using Southern analyses of the genus Capsicum found four distinct clusters delineated among 21 accessions of cultivated and wild pepper. All accessions were differentiated and the clusters corresponded closely to previous morphology-based classification. Prince 1995 |
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Spectrophotometric studies illustrated that the capsaicin oxidation by pepper peroxidase isoenzyme B6 was H2O2-dependent and was totally abolished by antibodies raised against horseradish peroxidase. Bernal 1994 |
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Z-carotene is the first visible carotenoid formed in the biosynthetic pathway: phytoene-->phytofluene--> z-carotene. The phytoene/phytofluene desaturase mRNA levels were extremely low in green fruits, increasing slightly before detectable carotenoid synthesis and remained constant during ripening. Hugueney 1992 |
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Cultivation, Conservation & Ecology |
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Capsicum annuum plants were grown aeroponically in a greenhouse under natural diurnally fluctuating ambient shoot temperatures, but at two different root-zone temperatures: a constant (20 C RZT) and (25-40 C) RZT. Plants grown at 20-RZT had more leaves, greater leaf area and dry weight. Dodd 2000 |
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Capsicum annuum fruits undergo changes in content of capsaicinoids, lignin, and free phenolics during the maturation process, with capsaicinoids levels increasing during development and free phenolics and lignin levels decreasing during development. Estrada 2000 |
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Ripening fruit of 5 cultivars showed the characteristic pattern of carotenoid biosynthesis for the Capsicum genus. The study was carried out throughout the ripening process to discover differences between cultivars and to characterize their carotenoid content for breeding programs. Hornero-Mendez 2000 |
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In generally, the effect of fruit maturation on changes in carotenoids, flavonoids, total soluble reducing equivalents, phenolic acids, ascorbic acid, and antioxidant activity in different Capsicum pepper types was to increase their levels as the peppers reached maturity. Howard 2000 |
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This paper suggested that a certain degree of herbivory might be beneficial to the growth and fruit yield of C. frutescens during the high temperature period.
[Article in Chinese]
Liu 2000 |
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